Manual harvesting in Champagne involves picking entire grape clusters by hand and placing them in small crates or boxes to prevent the berries from being crushed. In Champagne, this method is the standard and a requirement of the AOC specifications, as it ensures better quality control and limits mechanical damage to the grapes.

Key Elements of the Process:

• Harvest date selection: Decisions are based on laboratory analyses (sugar, acidity, pH, sugar/acid ratio), berry tastings, and the desired style (preserving fresh acidity, aromatic purity, etc.).
• Whole-cluster picking: Essential for reducing the extraction of phenolic compounds during pressing, particularly for Blanc de Blancs and Blanc de Noirs styles.
• Organization of harvest teams: The harvest manager coordinates pickers, distributes quotas, oversees sorting, and manages logistics. Uniform work is crucial to ensure consistent quality across the vineyard.
• Packaging and transport: Grapes are placed in small crates to avoid crushing and quickly transported to the press to prevent spontaneous fermentation or oxidation.
• Preliminary vineyard sorting: Removal of rotten berries, leaves, and impurities. In adverse weather, a second sorting may be performed upon reception.

Practical Advantages of Manual Harvesting:

• Less mechanical damage → purer juice, reduced oxidation.
• Allows for parcel-specific vinification, enabling fine traceability and precise blending.
• Direct quality sorting possible: removal of botrytis, green berries, and other defects.
• Adaptation to microclimates: the ability to harvest different parts of a vineyard at different times.

Constraints:

• Labor-intensive and costly.
• Requires significant logistics (many containers, fast transport, reception space).

Pressing in Champagne involves gently extracting juice from whole grape clusters while minimizing the extraction of phenolic compounds and tannins. The quality of the pressing directly determines the purity, acidity, and aromatic finesse of the base wine.

Types of Presses Used:

• Pneumatic presses: Most common; use a flexible membrane that applies gentle, controlled pressure.
• Traditional basket presses (e.g., historic Coquard type): Less frequent; provide a more rustic extraction but still used in some traditional houses.
• Continuous presses: Rarely used; considered too aggressive and difficult to manage fractionally.

Pressing Technique:

• Careful loading: Whole clusters are placed in layers without crushing.
• Progressive cycles: Pressure is increased in stages with pauses to limit mechanical extraction.

Separation of juice fractions (cuvée and tailles):

• Cuvée: First fraction; most noble, rich in acidity and aromatic finesse.
• Taille: Second fraction; higher in phenolic and mineral compounds, contributing structure and power.
• Rebêche (or queux): Third fraction; lower quality, rarely used in AOC Champagne blends.

Control Points During Pressing:

• Pressure and rate of increase: Low initial pressure to extract the cuvée.
• Temperature: Cold reception to prevent unwanted fermentation or spoilage.
• Grape cleanliness: Leaves, stems, and debris removed to avoid bitterness and faults.
• Oxygen management: Minimize air contact, moderate use of SO₂.
• Press logbook: Mandatory for traceability (weight of grapes, juice volumes per fraction).

Specifics by Style:

• Blanc de Blancs (Chardonnay): Extremely delicate pressing, emphasizing finesse and purity of the cuvée.
• Blanc de Noirs (Pinot Noir, Meunier): Fast but gentle pressing to avoid coloration or excessive tannin extraction.

Rosé Champagne:

• Assemblage rosé: Classic white pressing followed by addition of red wine.
• Saignée rosé: Pre-maceration (saignée) to extract color and aromas, followed by pressing.

Primary alcoholic fermentation is a biochemical process in which yeasts convert the sugars in the must into alcohol and CO₂, while producing aromatic compounds and textural elements. In Champagne, this is a crucial step—it determines the purity, aromatic profile, and “dryness” (the sensation of dryness) of the base wine before tirage.

Strategic Decisions Before Starting Fermentation
Choice of Yeasts:

• Selected yeasts (commercial strains): Provide predictable speed, clean fermentation, and a controlled aromatic signature (fruity, floral, or neutral notes).
• Indigenous / wild yeasts: Can add extra complexity and a less predictable profile; some houses use them partially to enhance complexity.
• Choice depends on the desired style: houses prioritizing consistency often inoculate; “experimental” producers sometimes allow natural flora to ferment part of the wine.

Fermentation Equipment and Tanks:

• Stainless steel tanks: Most common; neutral, precise temperature control, and easy analysis.
• Barrels / casks / foudres: Used for reserve wines or special lots; provide micro-oxygenation and roundness.
• Concrete tanks / amphorae: Sometimes used to achieve intermediate texture and subtle micro-oxygenation without wood influence.
• Tank choice strongly influences the final profile: stainless steel = purity and freshness; wood = texture, roundness, and light oak notes (if barrel).

Temperature and Kinetics:

• Typically cool-tempered range: ~12–18 °C.
• Chardonnay: lower end (12–15 °C) to preserve esters and delicate notes.
• Pinot Noir / Meunier: slightly higher (14–18 °C) to ensure fermentation and fruit expression.
• Duration: active fermentation typically lasts ~7–20 days depending on temperature, sugar content, yeast strain, and must nutrition; cooler fermentation is slower.

Influence on Wine Style

• Cold and slow fermentation: preserves primary fruity and floral aromas (esters), high purity; ideal for Blanc de Blancs and fresh NV wines.
• Warm and fast fermentation: produces a “warmer” profile, sometimes more complex and fuller-bodied; useful for Pinot/Meunier when density is desired.
• Fermentation in wood: adds roundness, texture, and micro-oxygenation; valuable for reserve wines or prestige cuvées.
• Use of wild yeasts: increases complexity but higher risk of instability or faults.

Fermentation to Dryness and Residual Sugar
Base wines for Champagne are generally vinified dry—up to complete or near-complete absence of residual sugar—because secondary fermentation in bottle (prise de mousse) requires a very low-sugar substrate. It is exceptional to leave a notable amount of residual sugar in the base wine for a particular style.

Malolactic Fermentation (MLF) — Relation to Primary Phase
Malolactic fermentation converts malic acid into lactic acid (softer).
In Champagne, MLF is often controlled or prevented (via SO₂, low temperatures, filtration) to preserve fresh acidity and the “nerve” of the wine—especially for Blanc de Blancs and NV wines.

However, for certain Pinot lots or reserve wines, partial or full MLF may be sought to add roundness and buttery-lactic notes; the decision depends on blending objectives and grape character.

Assemblage is the process of blending different still wines (base wines): from different grape varieties, parcels, press fractions (cuvée / taille), and various vintages (including reserve wines). The goal is to achieve the desired profile for a given cuvée: NV house style, vintage, prestige cuvée, etc.

Elements the Cellar Master Can Manipulate:

• Grape varieties: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Meunier — in variable proportions.
• Parcels / terroirs:
• Côte des Blancs → mineral expression
• Montagne de Reims → structure (Pinot)
• Vallée de la Marne → fruity suppleness (Meunier)
• Côte des Bar → density (Pinot)
• Press fractions: cuvée vs taille — cuvée is lighter and more delicate; taille adds body.
• Reserve wines: older wines kept to maintain consistency in NV; stored in stainless steel, foudres, barrels, sometimes solera-style.
• Annual wines (for a vintage): blending different parcels from the same vintage to compose the vintage wine.

Objectives of Blending:

• Consistency: NV should “sound” like the brand year after year.
• Complexity: combining sources multiplies aromatic and textural layers.
• Balance: acidity ↔ fruit ↔ structure ↔ aging potential.
• Defining style: early and approachable, young and lively, or long-aged and toasty.
• Determining dosage potential and final alcohol level.

Step-by-Step Methodology (Practical in the Cellar):

1. Preliminary analyses and tastings: lab provides data (alcohol, titratable acidity, pH, SO₂), followed by sensory evaluation of lots.
2. “Table-blends”: small-scale trials (liters / tens of liters) to test proportions of grape varieties, parcels, cuvée/taille, and reserve wine percentage.
3. Tasting and adjustments: blind tasting by the team (cellar master, oenologist, management) to identify what is missing (acidity, freshness, volume, length).
4. Mathematical verification: calculation of final alcohol, titratable acidity, and SO₂ to ensure compliance with legal and technical standards.
5. Decision on reserve wine percentage: determine what portion of older wines to include in NV to maintain the “memory” of the house.
6. Recording the formula: document the blending recipe, volumes, and records (regulatory / accounting aspects).
7. Optional preliminary aging: sometimes the blend rests for weeks or months in tank so components “integrate” before tirage.

Tactics and Examples of Decisions:

• Increase Chardonnay proportion → enhances freshness, acidity, and aging potential (useful for Blanc de Blancs or long-aged cuvées).
• Increase Pinot Noir → adds body, structure, and density (useful for Blanc de Noirs or powerful cuvées).
• Add Meunier → brings roundness, early approachability, and fruity energy (common in house NV).
• Increase the “taille” fraction → strengthens structure and warmth but excessive amounts may reduce elegance.
• Use barrel-aged reserve wines → adds depth and texture; stainless steel reserves preserve freshness.

Risks and Common Errors:

• Overuse of reserve wines → risk of premature “aging” of aromatic profile, loss of freshness.
• Too much taille → risk of hardness and bitterness.
• Poor MLF management before blending → unexpected variations in acidity and aroma in bottle.

Tirage — this is the moment when the final blend (assemblage of base wines) is bottled with the addition of the tirage liqueur — a solution containing fermentable sugar + yeast and usually some nutrients. After corking, the second fermentation (prise de mousse) begins in the bottle, generating dissolved CO₂ in the wine — in other words, the effervescence of Champagne.

Typical composition of tirage liqueur:

• Sugar (usually sucrose) — the exact dosage depends on the target pressure (see below).
• Yeast (active dry yeast or liquid starter cultures, selected for low-temperature fermentation and long aging potential).
• Yeast nutrients / adjuncts (sometimes nitrogen, inactivated yeast cells, substrates) — to prevent stuck fermentations. In Champagne, their use is cautious.

Preparation and addition of tirage liqueur:

1. Precise calculation of sugar dosage.
2. Preparation of yeast: rehydration of dry yeast and pre-activation, or use of liquid starters.
3. Dissolution of sugar (in a small volume of base wine or pure water) followed by mixing with yeast and nutrients.
4. Addition on the tirage line under CO₂ / inert atmosphere; bottling and capping with crown cap or temporary stopper.
5. Recording in the tirage log (date, composition of liqueur, number of bottles, yeast batch, etc.) — an essential element for AOC traceability.

Typical sugar dosage for tirage:

• To reach ≈6 atm at 20 °C, about 13–14 g of sucrose per 0.75 L bottle is needed (≈18–19 g/L).
• In practice, houses work within a range of 16–24 g/L, depending on stylistic objectives.

Prise de mousse — the second fermentation in the bottle.
After tirage, in the sealed bottles, the yeast ferments the added sugar: sugar → alcohol + CO₂. In the closed bottle, the CO₂ cannot escape: it dissolves in the wine, creating the pressure and characteristic bubbles. Prise de mousse therefore determines the style and effervescent texture of the Champagne.

Key parameters:

• Target pressure: Champagne typically reaches ≈5.5–6.5 atm at 20 °C (often referred to as “around 6 atm”).
• CO₂ dissolution: according to Henry’s law, the higher the partial pressure of CO₂, the more gas dissolves in the wine.
• Alcohol: the second fermentation increases alcohol by about +1.0–1.3% vol.
• Duration: at 10–15 °C in the cellar, active fermentation lasts 2–6 weeks (longer in colder conditions).

End of prise de mousse:

• All added sugar is consumed.
• Pressure is stable at the target level.
• Yeast enters the stationary phase → beginning of the slow autolysis process.

Aging on Lees (Élevage sur lattes)
After prise de mousse, Champagne bottles remain hermetically sealed and are placed horizontally on racks in the cellars.

• Non-vintage (Brut NV): minimum 15 months, including at least 12 months on lees.
• Vintage Champagne: minimum 36 months.
• In practice, many houses extend aging: 3–4 years for basic cuvées up to 10–15+ years for prestige cuvées.

Aging on lees corresponds to the autolysis of the yeast, during which the wine develops its characteristic aromas and texture.

• Yeast death:

After fermentation, yeast cells gradually die, their walls break down, and they release their contents into the wine.

• Autolysis:

Proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and other components enrich the wine.
Mannoproteins and polysaccharides are essential: they give roundness, soften acidity, and increase the perception of volume.

• Influence on aroma:

Development of “autolytic” notes: bread crust, brioche, biscuit, nuts, marine/iodized notes, honey; in very long aging, subtle hints of mushroom or truffle.
These aromas become more pronounced after 2–3 years and reach their peak after 5–10+ years.

Practical aspects:

• Bottle position: horizontal on racks for maximum contact with the lees.
• Cellar temperature: about 10–12 °C, stable, high humidity (to prevent cork drying).
• Monitoring: tasting of sample bottles to track wine evolution.

Influence of aging duration:

• Short aging (minimum legal – 12 months): very fresh and fruity wine, light autolytic notes.
• Medium aging (3–5 years): balance between fruitiness and brioche/biscuit.
• Long aging (10+ years): increased complexity, truffle, honey, hazelnut, wax, dried flowers.

Objective of riddling:

• Concentrate all the lees (dead yeast) formed during aging on lees into a compact deposit in the neck of the bottle.
• Ensure wine clarity before disgorgement and minimize wine loss when removing the deposit.
• Prepare the bottle for a clean and controlled disgorgement.

When does it occur?

• After the end of the second fermentation (prise de mousse) and the legally required aging on lees (élevage sur lattes).
• Riddling only begins after sufficient autolysis of the yeast.

Traditional technique – manual riddling on pupitres:

• Bottles are placed on pupitres (wooden or plastic racks with holes), neck down.
• Typical program: over 4–8 weeks (often 6–8), the remueur performs daily precise movements: a slight shake of the bottle, a rotation of 1/8 to 1/4 turn, and a gradual increase of the downward tilt to slide the deposit toward the neck.
• Gradually, bottles move from horizontal to near-vertical, neck down, where they remain 1–3 days before disgorgement.
• Manual riddling is still practiced for prestige cuvées or small series to highlight artisanal character.

Mechanized alternative – gyropalette:

• The gyropalette is an automated cage that replicates thousands of manual movements (rotations, vibrations, tilting).
• Advantages: significant time savings (from several weeks to 24–72 hours depending on the program), consistency, and labor economy.
• Nevertheless, some major Champagne houses still prefer manual riddling for their emblematic cuvées for image and marketing reasons.

Hybrid approaches and subtleties:

• Certain blends or very old vintages require gentler, slower riddling to avoid overly fine deposit dispersion.
• Temperature and humidity in riddling cellars are crucial: a cool, stable temperature promotes deposit compactness.

Quality control:

• Proper riddling produces a solid deposit, easily expelled during disgorgement.
• Poor riddling leads to fine particles and variability between bottles, complicating disgorgement.
• Test bottles are used before large-scale disgorgement to verify deposit quality and anticipate potential defects.

Disgorgement is the process of removing the sediment accumulated in the neck of the bottle and resealing the bottle, with or without the addition of the dosage (liqueur d’expédition).

Classical method:

1. Preparation: Bottles are left neck down for a few days to concentrate the deposit.
2. Freezing the neck: The neck is quickly plunged into a refrigerating bath or subjected to a stream of nitrogen/cryogenic liquid (≈ −24 to −30 °C), forming an ice plug that traps the lees.
3. Opening: The metal cap is removed; the internal pressure expels the ice plug with the sediment.
4. Dosage (liqueur d’expédition): The lost volume is replaced with the dosage (a mixture of wine + sugar, according to the desired style).
5. Final corking: The bottle is sealed with a cork secured by a wire cage (muselet), then rested before commercial release.

Alternative methods:

• Disgorgement à la volée: Manual opening without freezing the neck. Traditional, spectacular technique, requiring skill. Nowadays reserved for small series or demonstrations.
• Industrial automation: Modern production lines perform freezing, disgorgement, dosage, and corking at high speed with perfect consistency.

Technical parameters:

• Wine losses are generally limited (2–5%, depending on the practice).
• Resting after disgorgement: Some houses leave the bottles in cellars for several months to integrate the dosage and stabilize the wine.

Variants and marketing aspects:

• Late disgorgement (dégorgement tardif / prolonged disgorgement): Very long aging on lees before disgorgement, resulting in intense autolytic aromas. Sometimes the disgorgement date is mentioned on the label.
• Disgorgement on demand: Offered by some houses for disgorgement just before sale, aimed at collectors or restaurants seeking “freshly disgorged” wines.
• Artisanal manual disgorgement: Considered a sign of tradition and craftsmanship in the prestige segment.

Dosage is the addition of liqueur d’expédition (or “dosage syrup”) after disgorgement, intended to adjust the sugar level and define the overall style of the champagne.
It consists of a sugar syrup (usually sucrose dissolved in wine) and sometimes additional wine.

Dosage determines the sweetness level of the finished champagne, ranging from Brut Nature to Doux.

Correcting sweetness:

• Balances the acidity of the base wine.
• Defines the character: fresher/drier or softer/more approachable.

Stability:

• Maintains harmony of aromas and texture.
• Allows houses to preserve a consistent style from year to year.

Approximate sugar categories:

• Brut Nature / Zero Dosage: 0–3 g/L
• Extra Brut: 0–6 g/L
• Brut: 6–12 g/L
• Extra Dry: 12–17 g/L
• Sec: 17–32 g/L
• Demi-Sec: 32–50 g/L
• Doux: >50 g/L

Preparation and addition of the liqueur d’expédition:
Sugar dose calculation:

• Based on the residual sugar of the base wine and the desired category.
• Sometimes adjusted according to pH and acidity to avoid imbalance.

Mixing:

• Sugar is dissolved in a small volume of wine; occasionally aromatic components or reserve wines are added.
• The prepared liqueur is checked for purity and exact sweetness.

Addition to the bottle:

• Usually via a dosing line under CO₂ or inert atmosphere.
• The volume is injected precisely to avoid disturbing the pressure or wine level in the bottle.

Quality control:

• Test bottles are used to verify sweetness, fill level, clarity, and taste.
• Recording in the logbook: date, volume, composition, batch.

Influence on style and aging potential:

• Minimal addition (Brut Nature, Extra Brut): highlights acidity, freshness, and fruit purity; suitable for long aging.
• Medium addition (Brut, Extra Dry): balances acidity and fruitiness, making the wine more approachable.
• High addition (Sec, Demi-Sec, Doux): produces sweet, round, aromatic champagnes; ideal for dessert pairings.

Bottling / Corking Objectives

• Maintain pressure after disgorgement and dosage.
• Protect the wine from air contact and microbiological contamination.
• Ensure presentation and aesthetics: traditional cork + muselet, a symbol of quality and prestige.

Cork Preparation

• Natural cork: specially compressed, high density, often made of several parts.
• Agglomerated cork (granules + micro-additives): used for NV or less prestigious cuvées.
• Check elasticity and size.

Cork Insertion

• Corking machines: the cork is compressed and inserted into the neck under pressure.
• The pressure is calculated to withstand ≈6 atm of CO₂ inside the bottle.

Fixing the Muselet and Cap

• Traditionally: wire muselet to secure the cork.
• Additionally: plastic or metal cap for safety during transport.

Control / Inspection

• Check cork density: it should not “pop” prematurely or be too tight.
• Check verticality and exterior appearance.
• Record batch, corking date, and tightness inspection.

Specifics by Style

• Prestige cuvées: high-quality natural cork, manual inspection, aesthetic attention to each bottle.
• NV mass production: agglomerated cork + automated muselet, saving time and ensuring consistency.
• Corking and aging: after corking, bottles may age a few more months to allow integration of the liqueur and stabilization of the bubbles.

After disgorgement (removal of the deposit) and addition of the dosage (liqueur d’expédition), the bottle is not yet ready for sale: post-disgorgement aging is often necessary — a period of “post-disgorgement maturation.”

Objectives of Post-Disgorgement Aging
Integration of the dosage

• The sugar and wine from the dosage must blend harmoniously with the base wine.
• Softening of flavors, harmonization of acidity and texture.

Stabilization of gas and pressure

• Minor CO₂ variations after the dosage can affect pressure and bubble formation.
• A few months in a horizontal or slightly inclined position allows the gas to stabilize.

Development of aromatic profile

• Continued moderate autolysis of yeast (if microscopic residues remain).
• Softening of edges, slight rounding, and integration of aromas.

Duration

• Typically a few months to a year, depending on the style:
• NV (non-vintage) — 3 to 6 months.
• Vintage or prestige cuvée — 6 to 12 months or more.
• Some houses perform late disgorgement and extend aging to enhance autolytic notes (biscuit, bread, nuts).

Storage Conditions

• Temperature: stable and cool (~12–15 °C).
• Position: vertical to minimize contact with the cork and preserve wine level.
• Humidity: moderate to prevent drying of the cork and muselet components.

Labeling is the final stage before the wine is released: all labels and markings are applied to the bottle according to legal requirements and house standards.

Front Label

• Brand name, cuvée, style (Brut, Extra Brut, Blanc de Blancs, Rosé, etc.).
• AOC Champagne designation.
• Sometimes: vintage year (for vintage cuvées) or disgorgement date (for late disgorgement).

Back Label

• Alcohol content (% ABV), volume (ml), producer information.
• Sometimes: brief description of the style or the house.

Additional Elements

• Export markings (certificates, compliance with country-specific requirements).
• Security stickers or QR codes.

Process

• Labeling can be manual for prestige cuvées or automated for mass production.
• Verification of label positioning and aesthetics, especially in the premium segment.
• Sometimes: addition of an aluminum or plastic capsule on the neck with the house logo for protection and presentation.

Influence on Marketing and Perception

• The label is an important visual marker of style and house level.
• For collectors and prestige cuvées, correct information on disgorgement and reserve wines is essential.
• Labeling strongly affects the first impression of the bottle, particularly in the premium market.